The Delhi Sultanate

Finding Out About The Delhi Sultans

The Delhi Sultanate refers to the various dynasties that ruled from Delhi between the 13th and 16th centuries (roughly 1206 to 1526 CE). These dynasties were of Turkic and Afghan origin. Finding out about the history of the Delhi Sultanate requires examining different types of historical sources from this period.

Sources Of Information

Historians use various sources to reconstruct the history of the Delhi Sultans:

• Inscriptions: Found on monuments, tombs, and coins. Provide names of rulers, dates, titles, and sometimes information about events or administrative actions.
• Coins: Issued by the Sultans. Provide names of rulers, dates, titles, and information about the economy (material, purity, weight).
• Architecture: Buildings constructed during the Sultanate period (mosques, tombs, forts, minars like the Qutb Minar). Reflect architectural styles, engineering skills, religious practices, and the power of the rulers.
• Tarikh / Tawarikh (Chronicles): Histories written in Persian (the language of administration under the Sultanate). These chronicles were often written by learned men, sometimes at the command of the Sultans, and provide detailed accounts of their reigns, political events, military campaigns, and administrative policies.
  • Notable chroniclers: Minhaj-i Siraj (wrote Tabaqat-i Nasiri), Ziauddin Barani (wrote Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi), Shams-i Siraj Afif.
  • Challenges with Chronicles: Often written by courtiers, they tend to praise the Sultans and may not always provide a neutral perspective. Chroniclers often wrote for Sultans and expected rewards, which could influence their writing.
• Travel accounts: Accounts by foreign travellers who visited the Delhi Sultanate (most famously, Ibn Battuta from Morocco). They provide external perspectives on the society, economy, cities, and rulers.

*(Image shows a photograph of the Qutb Minar or some coins issued by Delhi Sultans)*

Raziyya Sultan

• Raziyya Sultan (ruled 1236-1240 CE) was a notable ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, belonging to the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty. She was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish.
• She was a capable and intelligent ruler, but she faced significant opposition from the nobility, who were reluctant to be ruled by a woman.
• Chroniclers like Minhaj-i Siraj recognised her abilities but also noted that she was not considered suitable to be a ruler 'as she was a woman'.
• Her brief reign highlights the challenges faced by women in positions of power in medieval times and the societal norms of the era.

The diverse sources for the Delhi Sultanate, including chronicles, archaeological evidence, and travel accounts, allow historians to piece together the history of this important period, understanding the rulers, their policies, and the society they governed, while also being critical of the sources' perspectives and biases.

From Garrison Town To Empire: The Expansion Of The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate began as a small garrison town under Qutbuddin Aibak in 1206 CE. Over the next century, particularly during the reigns of Iltutmish, Ghiyasuddin Balban, and later Sultans like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughluq, the Sultanate expanded its territory and military power, transforming from a small base to a large empire.

Early Expansion:

• The initial expansion was within the 'internal frontiers' of the Sultanate.

Internal Frontier

• This involved consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns and bringing the areas adjacent to the capital under effective control.
• During the early reigns (e.g., Iltutmish), the focus was on securing the areas around Delhi and in the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
• This involved clearing forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, driving out hunter-gatherers and pastoralists, and establishing agricultural settlements.
• This expansion aimed to strengthen the base of the Sultanate, increase agricultural production, and secure routes for trade and administration.

External Frontier

• The major expansion of the Sultanate occurred along its 'external frontier' – into the territories of other kingdoms in North India and subsequently into South India.
• Military campaigns were launched to conquer forts, cities, and kingdoms in various regions.
• Under Alauddin Khalji (ruled 1296-1316 CE), the Sultanate launched extensive campaigns into Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Deccan.
• Under Muhammad Bin Tughluq (ruled 1324-1351 CE), the Sultanate's territorial extent reached its maximum, covering almost the entire subcontinent.

*(Image shows a map illustrating the territorial growth of the Delhi Sultanate through internal consolidation and external campaigns)*

Impact of Expansion:

• Conquests brought wealth (plunder) and resources to the Sultanate.
• New territories were brought under the administration of the Sultanate.
• Expansion facilitated trade and communication across wider areas.
• Maintaining control over such a large and diverse territory posed significant administrative and military challenges, contributing to the eventual fragmentation and decline of the Sultanate.

The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate transformed it from a small military base to a large, albeit often unstable, empire in the Indian subcontinent.

A Closer Look: Administration And Consolidation Under The Khaljis And Tughluqs

The consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate's vast territories into a functioning empire required establishing effective administrative systems. Rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughluq introduced measures to strengthen central control, manage resources, and maintain the army.

Early Turkic Rulers and Challenges:

• Early Sultans faced challenges in controlling distant garrison towns and bringing conquered territories under direct rule.
• They relied on administrators and military commanders, often drawn from enslaved people (Bandagan) or trusted followers.

Bandagan And Clients

• The early Delhi Sultans, particularly the Mamluks (Slave Dynasty), favoured their special slaves purchased for military service. These slaves were called Bandagan in Persian.
• Bandagan were carefully trained and promoted to important political and military positions. They were often more loyal to the Sultan than freeborn nobles, as they were dependent on the Sultan.
• Sultans also appointed clients, people of humble birth who were raised to high positions, to administrative offices.
• The use of Bandagan and clients helped Sultans consolidate power, but also led to political instability as loyalties could shift, and successors often favoured their own trusted men.

The Iqta System

• To manage the vast conquered territories and maintain the army, the Delhi Sultans developed the Iqta system.
• Under this system, the empire's lands were divided into territories called iqtas (singular: iqta).
• These iqtas were assigned to military commanders or nobles called muqtis or iqtadars.
• The muqtis were responsible for:
  • Leading military campaigns and maintaining their troops.
  • Collecting the revenues from their iqtas.
  • Maintaining law and order in their iqtas.
• The muqtis used the collected revenues to pay the salaries of their soldiers and themselves. They were expected to send the surplus revenue to the central government.

Control Over Muqtis

• Sultans like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughluq took steps to control the muqtis and ensure they did not become too powerful or independent.
• Measures included:
  • Appointing accountants (khwaja) to check the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis.
  • Ensuring that muqtis collected only the prescribed taxes.
  • Transferring muqtis from one iqta to another frequently to prevent them from establishing deep roots or hereditary control.
  • Maintaining direct royal control over some key areas and important cities.

Land Revenue And Taxes

• Agriculture was the main source of revenue. The state collected taxes on cultivation.
• The Sultanate levied three types of taxes:
  • On cultivation (called kharaj, a tax amounting to about 50% of the peasant's produce, particularly under Alauddin Khalji).
  • On cattle.
  • On houses.
• The state attempted to measure the land and keep careful accounts of revenue collection, especially under Alauddin Khalji.
• This heavy taxation, while providing resources for the state, also put a burden on the peasantry.

Mongol Invasions And Responses

• The Delhi Sultanate faced the constant threat of Mongol invasions from the northwest, particularly from Central Asia. Mongol invasions intensified during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughluq.
• Responses to Mongol invasions:
  • Military strength: Sultans maintained large standing armies to defend against Mongol attacks.
  • Fortification: Forts were built and strengthened.
  • Administrative and economic measures: Alauddin Khalji introduced market control policies (controlling prices of goods, especially food) and other administrative measures to ensure that soldiers could be paid low salaries and the army could be maintained efficiently without excessive burden on the treasury. Muhammad Bin Tughluq raised a large army but faced financial strain.
  • Territorial adjustments: Sometimes, frontier regions were strategically managed or strengthened.
• The need to respond to Mongol invasions significantly influenced the administrative and military policies of the Sultanate, leading to measures like stringent revenue collection and market controls.

The administration and consolidation efforts under the Khaljis and Tughluqs show the development of complex systems to govern a large empire, address financial and military needs, and maintain control over powerful regional administrators, while also facing external threats.

The Sultanate In The Fifteenth And Sixteenth Centuries

By the end of the 14th century, the Delhi Sultanate under the Tughluqs began to decline. The Tughluq dynasty was followed by the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties. During the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Sultanate's power weakened, and it fragmented into several smaller kingdoms.

Successor States

• As the central authority of the Delhi Sultanate weakened, provincial governors and local rulers asserted their independence.
• Several independent regional kingdoms emerged in areas that were previously part of the Sultanate.
  • Example: Bengal, Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the entire South India (which had already broken away earlier with the rise of Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms).
• These successor states often developed their own distinct regional cultures, languages, and architectural styles.
• While smaller than the vast Sultanate, some of these regional kingdoms were powerful and prosperous in their own right.

The Sur Dynasty

• In the early 16th century, the Delhi Sultanate under the Lodi dynasty was challenged by both internal rebellions and the rise of new powers.
• Sher Shah Sur (ruled 1540-1545 CE) was an Afghan leader who founded the Sur dynasty. He defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun and established a short-lived but well-administered empire in North India.
• Sher Shah Sur's reign, though brief, is significant for its administrative reforms, including improvements in land revenue administration, currency (introduction of the 'rupiya'), and construction of roads (e.g., the Grand Trunk Road).
• His administrative system influenced later Mughal administration.
• After Sher Shah's death, the Sur dynasty declined, and Humayun regained control of Delhi in 1555, re-establishing Mughal rule.

The 15th and early 16th centuries represent a period of political fragmentation and the rise of regional powers, with the Delhi Sultanate shrinking in size and influence, before the establishment of the Mughal Empire which would again unify a large part of the subcontinent.